Seyyed Yahya Safavi
Volume 10, Issue 38 , August 2001, , Pages 8-10
Abstract
Ground offensive forces, though with high mobility potential, if lacking air support facilities, will have to pass wide rivers by swimming or boat, and in some cases by building a bridge over the river, without decreasing their advancing speed; and this is so while the enemy's defense forces have been ...
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Ground offensive forces, though with high mobility potential, if lacking air support facilities, will have to pass wide rivers by swimming or boat, and in some cases by building a bridge over the river, without decreasing their advancing speed; and this is so while the enemy's defense forces have been deployed on the other shore of the river. The passage of the Islamic Revolutionary Forces over the Arvand Roud during the Valfajr 8 Operation (Faw - Feb. 09, 1985) was an example of courageous operation and excellent military design.
Hosein Hataminejad (Translator)
Volume 5, Issue 19 , November 1996, , Pages 8-18
Abstract
We are accustomed to looking at maps as political or certain units (for example states, countries, census districts) are plotted according to their relative size. So, for example, in the U.S. map the state of Texas appears larger than Rhode Island, Colorado larger than Massachusetts, and so on. The areas ...
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We are accustomed to looking at maps as political or certain units (for example states, countries, census districts) are plotted according to their relative size. So, for example, in the U.S. map the state of Texas appears larger than Rhode Island, Colorado larger than Massachusetts, and so on. The areas on the map are based on the geographical spaces of political units (it is only in non-equivalent area images where these relations are intensified), but it is quite possible that maps be produced on which the spaces of the political units are plotted according to parameters other than geographic space. For example, map areas that represent states may be plotted in proportion to their population, their income, or the number of their retailers, rather than being proportionate to their geographical size.
Maps that are presented in this way according to different quantities are referred to as Cartogram or "levels of value" or "spatial shape deformation " maps.
Ahmad Pourahmad; Hossein Najafi; Roghayyeh Shamsi; Mohammad Fe'li
Volume 21, Issue 83 , November 2012, , Pages 9-15
Abstract
Land and its usage have always been the main theme and context in urban planning and actually it is the land which ultimately determine the destiny of urban development plan, mediating and supervising land use. This has always been one of social, economic and physical issues in recent urbanization. The ...
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Land and its usage have always been the main theme and context in urban planning and actually it is the land which ultimately determine the destiny of urban development plan, mediating and supervising land use. This has always been one of social, economic and physical issues in recent urbanization. The present article considers land use in Sa’d Abad city. First, present situation of the land uses are investigated, then future plans are mentioned. Descriptive-analytic method is used. Theoretical framework is prepared using secondary research and other information are collected in a field study. To perform qualitative analysis, SWOT method is applied. GIS and AUTO CAD are used for drawing and analyzing information. Results indicate that we face shortage of most present land uses and surplus of some others which signifies lack of balance in land use which should be directed towards balance with concise planning.
Hassan Beik Mohammadi; Yunos Azadi
Volume 21, Issue 81 , April 2012, , Pages 9-16
Seyyed Yahya Rahim Safavi
Volume 20, Issue 79 , November 2011, , Pages 9-19
Abstract
The achievement of desirable focal points in convergence among Islamic countries makes outlining the desired perspective for such convergence inevitable. The prospect is a real, respectable and attractive future for the countries. Unity is an interdisciplinary process that requires the consideration ...
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The achievement of desirable focal points in convergence among Islamic countries makes outlining the desired perspective for such convergence inevitable. The prospect is a real, respectable and attractive future for the countries. Unity is an interdisciplinary process that requires the consideration of economic, technological, social, political, security, geopolitical and cultural layers, as well as different governmental and non-governmental actors. One of the characteristic features of the unity and convergence of Islamic countries is the tangled and invisible thematic boundaries. In this paper, the perspectives of convergence of the Islamic world in different dimensions are examined and strategies for Islamic countries along with their challenges and opportunities are presented.
Seyyed Yahya Safavi
Volume 19, Issue 75 , November 2010, , Pages 9-15
Abstract
The issue of convergence in the Islamic world and the need for consensus among Muslims is one of the most important requirements of Islamic societies in the present era. Unity of Muslims is at the moment, that the Islamic world is in the most critical stages of its life, is one of the main ideas and ...
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The issue of convergence in the Islamic world and the need for consensus among Muslims is one of the most important requirements of Islamic societies in the present era. Unity of Muslims is at the moment, that the Islamic world is in the most critical stages of its life, is one of the main ideas and solutions suggested to confront the challenges ahead. Islamic unity is a matter which has always been discussed in the history of political and social thought of Muslim nations as a theory with a fundamental and vital strategy against the extensive and all-out invasion of colonialism. One of the ways to realize the material and non-material goals and interests of the states in the field of international relations is convergence. Each government, on the basis of the values it considers, costs a portion of its interests for achieving the goals and perspectives sought in the process of convergence. In this part of the article, the bases and factors in the Islamic world that are prior to convergence are identified and studied.
Seyyed Yahya Safavi
Volume 19, Issue 74 , August 2010, , Pages 9-19
Abstract
The durability, stability and dynamism of each school of thought depend on various factors. One of the most important of these factors is the behavior of followers and believers of that school. In a more clear sense, the actions of followers of a school have a great influence on the dynamism and stability ...
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The durability, stability and dynamism of each school of thought depend on various factors. One of the most important of these factors is the behavior of followers and believers of that school. In a more clear sense, the actions of followers of a school have a great influence on the dynamism and stability of that school. From the very beginning, the school of Islam has brought light to its followers, and with the emphasis on elements such as reflection and contemplation on the universe and the search for knowledge and research in their characteristics, leads Muslims in particular and the world generally to the creation of utopia. Hence, the role of believers in Islam in the spreading of the teachings and patterns of this religion is crucial for establishing peace and tranquility and in desire for knowledge and research. The Islamic Republic of Iran, thanks to the achievements and blessings of its idealistic and Islamic revolution and gaining political, epistemological and cultural independence, has taken steps as the pioneer in the revival of the unity and convergence between the Muslim nations, and, in this way, has not avoided great efforts and sacrifices. Based on the contemplation concerning the grounds of unity,
convergence and alignment is one of the most important perspectives of the country. Based on the doctrines of politics and international relations, the most important professional concern of statesmen and policymakers is how to provide the ground for increasing power and wealth. From the perspective of realistic methodology, today, the increase in the wealth and power of the state-nations is influenced by many independent variables. The most important of these variables in the field of foreign affairs of governments is to create convergence and unity among countries with common goals and values.
Seyyed Yahya Safavi
Volume 18, Issue 70 , August 2009, , Pages 9-15
Abstract
The true origin of the unity of the Islamic Ummah (society of all Muslims as a whole) is the religion of Islam, which derives its root from human nature. The changes that this religion has had over the course of history have been limited to the minor details of the laws which owing to the variety of ...
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The true origin of the unity of the Islamic Ummah (society of all Muslims as a whole) is the religion of Islam, which derives its root from human nature. The changes that this religion has had over the course of history have been limited to the minor details of the laws which owing to the variety of the situations of human life in different societies. The general principles that constitute the main body of the divine religion have always been united throughout history, this intellectual and ideological unity is the most important basis of unity in the Islamic society. In order to establish unity and solidarity among a community or nation, sharing common ideology and worldview are among basic necessities, without such a sharing, one can never expect a true unity among people. Today, among more than one billion Muslims, there is no disagreement concerning God, the Book of God, and the Prophet of God, and the Qibla, which is the symbol of unity in the outside world, has never been disputed. These four basic principles of unity can always be counted on as reliable bases for solving all of the minor differences.
Seyyed Yahya Saffavi
Volume 17, Issue 68 , February 2008, , Pages 9-12
Abstract
The true origin of the unity of the Islamic Ummah (society of all Muslims as a whole) is the religion of Islam, which derives its root from human nature. The changes that this religion has had over the course of history have been limited to the minor details of the laws which owing to the variety of ...
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The true origin of the unity of the Islamic Ummah (society of all Muslims as a whole) is the religion of Islam, which derives its root from human nature. The changes that this religion has had over the course of history have been limited to the minor details of the laws which owing to the variety of the situations of human life in different societies. The general principles that constitute the main body of the divine religion have always been united throughout history, this intellectual and ideological unity is the most important basis of unity in the Islamic society. In order to establish unity and solidarity among a community or nation, sharing common ideology and worldview are among basic necessities, without such a sharing, one can never expect a true unity among people. Today, among more than one billion Muslims, there is no disagreement concerning God, the Book of God, and the Prophet of God, and the Qibla, which is the symbol of unity in the outside world, has never been disputed. These four basic principles of unity can always be counted on as reliable bases for solving all of the minor differences.
Mas'oud Taghvaii; Golshan Moradi
Volume 15, Issue 57 , May 2006, , Pages 9-15
Abstract
The suitability of physical framework to achieve equal opportunities for all individuals and sectors of the population in order to move around the city and have access to all urban spaces is one of the essential elements of a community’s growth and development. It is now fifteen years since the ...
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The suitability of physical framework to achieve equal opportunities for all individuals and sectors of the population in order to move around the city and have access to all urban spaces is one of the essential elements of a community’s growth and development. It is now fifteen years since the first set of rules and regulations for urban development and architecture concerning disabled people were prepared in Iran, but the current status of passages indicates the failure of these regulations in practice. The number of disabled people is increasing day by day due to the problems and obstacles in the city and the increase in accidents and other incidents in the country. But unfortunately, proper and adequate measures have not been taken to suit the urban environment, including passages that are among the most important urban areas for disabled people. The purpose of this study is to examine the passages of Isfahan city using regulations and criteria collected from different sources in order to improve the well-being of the disabled people in Isfahan city. In order to achieve this goal, using a secondary method as well as a combination of analytical methods, field surveys, questionnaires and interviews with the disabled and the visually impaired, the 78 main and secondary passages of Isfahan city have been examined and the results have been presented through tables, charts and maps. At the end, suggestions have been made to remove existing obstacles and problems and to organize the status of the passages.
Paridokht Fesharaki
Volume 12, Issue 48 , February 2003, , Pages 9-16
Abstract
This paper has two basic objectives:1- Reviewing and evaluating major rural development strategies that have been used in the developing world.2- Providing a successful rural development model in China (studied in this paper). Major types of rural development and rural development courses of action are ...
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This paper has two basic objectives:1- Reviewing and evaluating major rural development strategies that have been used in the developing world.2- Providing a successful rural development model in China (studied in this paper). Major types of rural development and rural development courses of action are presented in Figures 1 and 5, respectively.The significance of the increase of efficiency in rise in agricultural productivity of the Third World is shown in Fig. 2. The increase in fertility in Asian agriculture is often referred to as the "Green Revolution". The meanings associated with the phrase Green Revolution, the strategy of this revolution and its positive and negative aspects have been discussed and, in necessary cases, the relevant developments have been traced until the 1950s-60s.China has been especially at the center of attention, where many different methods have been tested for rural development (Fig. 5).This country has undergone various stages of rural development that can be summarized as follows:1. Land reform2. Collective agricultural system3. The dissolution of the collective agricultural system4. A New Peasant Economy
Seyyed Yahya Safavi
Volume 12, Issue 45 , May 2003, , Pages 9-11
Abstract
Places and StructuresUrban spots or areas refer to parts of the earth with a population density equal to or more than 300 inhabitants per square kilometer and the average number of buildings of at least one per hectare. This definition covers all small towns and suburbs as well as small and large cities ...
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Places and StructuresUrban spots or areas refer to parts of the earth with a population density equal to or more than 300 inhabitants per square kilometer and the average number of buildings of at least one per hectare. This definition covers all small towns and suburbs as well as small and large cities with different shapes, whether adjacent to each other or at distances from one another, which are based on smooth or rough ground.
Hamid Malmirian (Translator)
Volume 9, Issue 36 , February 2000, , Pages 9-13
Abstract
Aerial photos contain details of land features. A photo interpreter systematically reviews photos and regularly utilizes other auxiliary materials, such as maps and field observation reports. According to this study, interpretation is carried out according to physical nature of features and phenomena ...
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Aerial photos contain details of land features. A photo interpreter systematically reviews photos and regularly utilizes other auxiliary materials, such as maps and field observation reports. According to this study, interpretation is carried out according to physical nature of features and phenomena on the photos. Interpretation may be implemented at different levels of complexity: from simple recognition of phenomena on the earth to extraction of detailed information, considering the complexity of the interactions between surface and subterranean features.
Hamid Malmirian (Translator)
Volume 7, Issue 25 , May 1998, , Pages 9-18
Abstract
The progress made over the past three decades in cartography, remote sensing and geographic information systems is due to the necessity of establishing new connections among currently specified technical regulations. Great efforts have been made to realize desirable collection of various cartographic ...
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The progress made over the past three decades in cartography, remote sensing and geographic information systems is due to the necessity of establishing new connections among currently specified technical regulations. Great efforts have been made to realize desirable collection of various cartographic data and more successful utilization of remote sensing data of regional and international data banks.
The importance of remote sensing as an environmental information sub-system has significantly increased by launch of a number of new satellites equipped with electronic sensors and images able to present data and pictures from physical and human elements of earth’s atmosphere.
Cartographic display of spatial and temporal changes of the earth’s elements is the most important goal of thematic cartography. This goal has been confirmed by many cases of planning for map preparation on global, regional and local scales. Thematic map production has been recognized by many associations as a vital task in exploration of underground resources and environmental management and planning. The rapid progress of satellite systems has led to expansion of remote sensing and its applications in cartographic and map-completion activities.
The connection between cartography, remote sensing and geographic information systems can be indicated in various ways. It seems that the Fig.1-1 reflects the connection among the three systems without presence of special governing regulations.
Seyyed Yahya Safavi
Volume 20, Issue 77 , May 2011, , Pages 10-14
Abstract
Politically, the Islamic world can define for itself the role of a global power and thus provide a ground through which the interests of all Islamic member states are derived from the definition and establishment of the "Union of Islamic Countries." The validity and continuance of such a role are due ...
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Politically, the Islamic world can define for itself the role of a global power and thus provide a ground through which the interests of all Islamic member states are derived from the definition and establishment of the "Union of Islamic Countries." The validity and continuance of such a role are due to the following reasons:The enjoyment by the Islamic world of creditable focuses for the creation of power;Having an extrovert ideology that has the ability to plan on a global scale and at least has social acceptability in the realm of the Islamic world;A significant contribution to the global communications network due to the ability to generate meaning;The possibility of upgrading its military organization and turning it into an effective power at the regional level;Having a large geographical area with high population density;Possessing sensitive and influential geopolitics in the global system.The establishment of the "Union of Islamic Countries" is judged as a major objective at the level of regional systems, and is considered by many to be the most effective structural alternative to the modern world order in the present century.
Ahmad Pour Ahmad; Iraj Ghasemi
Volume 19, Issue 76 , February 2011, , Pages 10-16
Abstract
Urban planning research, like most behavioral sciences and human research, should be supported by a proper theoretical framework or conceptual model. In this theoretical framework and conceptual model, the variables and factors affecting the subject matter are identified and their relationships are determined. ...
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Urban planning research, like most behavioral sciences and human research, should be supported by a proper theoretical framework or conceptual model. In this theoretical framework and conceptual model, the variables and factors affecting the subject matter are identified and their relationships are determined. To assess the validity and correctness of these models, there are different qualitative and quantitative techniques and tools. Structural equation modeling is one of these quantitative and multivariate tools that examines and evaluates the fitting of the model and allows for some modifications in the model. In this paper, along with introducing the technique of modeling structural equations and Lisrel software, its application in urban planning research is described.
Seyyed Yahya Safavi
Volume 18, Issue 71 , November 2009, , Pages 10-14
Abstract
The true origin of the unity of the Islamic Ummah (society of all Muslims as a whole) is the religion of Islam, which derives its root from human nature. The changes that this religion has had over the course of history have been limited to the minor details of the laws which owing to the variety of ...
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The true origin of the unity of the Islamic Ummah (society of all Muslims as a whole) is the religion of Islam, which derives its root from human nature. The changes that this religion has had over the course of history have been limited to the minor details of the laws which owing to the variety of the situations of human life in different societies. The general principles that constitute the main body of the divine religion have always been united throughout history, this intellectual and ideological unity is the most important basis of unity in the Islamic society. In order to establish unity and solidarity among a community or nation, sharing common ideology and worldview are among basic necessities, without such a sharing, one can never expect a true unity among people. Today, among more than one billion Muslims, there is no disagreement concerning God, the Book of God, and the Prophet of God, and the Qibla, which is the symbol of unity in the outside world, has never been disputed. These four basic principles of unity can always be counted on as reliable bases for solving all of the minor differences.
Seyyed Yahya Safavi
Volume 16, Issue 61 , May 2007, , Pages 10-14
Abstract
The Persian Gulf has a prominent geographic position. Natural conditions such as little depth, water salinity and high evaporation on the one hand, and limited communication with open lands of the world on the other, have created a special ecosystem within the Persian Gulf and its coasts. The Persian ...
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The Persian Gulf has a prominent geographic position. Natural conditions such as little depth, water salinity and high evaporation on the one hand, and limited communication with open lands of the world on the other, have created a special ecosystem within the Persian Gulf and its coasts. The Persian Gulf has long been regarded as one of the most important strategic regions of the world. The Persian Gulf region is a geopolitical unit located in the wider geostrategic basins of the Indian Ocean. The geographic region of the Persian Gulf acts as one of the most active economic centers in the world. It’s major exports are oil and gas and it’s imports mainly consist of industrial and food products. Natural potential and vast oil and gas resources have contributed to the establishment of a single-product economic system in coastal countries.
Seyyed Yahya Safavi
Volume 12, Issue 46 , August 2003, , Pages 10-13
Abstract
In ancient times, for the inhabitants of a city defeat and victory in a war was a matter of life and death. No one knew what fate awaited after surrender, because the conquerors were free to do whatever they desired. Throughout history, conquerors can be seen who sieged cities and deceived defenders ...
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In ancient times, for the inhabitants of a city defeat and victory in a war was a matter of life and death. No one knew what fate awaited after surrender, because the conquerors were free to do whatever they desired. Throughout history, conquerors can be seen who sieged cities and deceived defenders from defiance and resistance, or defenders slowly gave up because of starvation and famine, and then major massacres were committed following the entrance of troops into the city, and the city was fully devastated. For a city to survive wartime casualties, certain areas of city are deliberately declared to be defenseless for political, economic, military, cultural, esthetic or humanitarian reasons. The number of such declarations is small and the success rate of such proposals varies from one case to the other.
Sayyed Yahya Rahim Safavi
Volume 18, Issue 72 , February 2010, , Pages 11-13
Abstract
The Islamic World covers a wide range, extending from western Atlantic coast in South America to the western coasts of the Pacific Ocean on the Asian continent. An area that accounts for more than 22 percent of the world's drylands and includes vast sections of two continents, Asia and Africa, and small ...
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The Islamic World covers a wide range, extending from western Atlantic coast in South America to the western coasts of the Pacific Ocean on the Asian continent. An area that accounts for more than 22 percent of the world's drylands and includes vast sections of two continents, Asia and Africa, and small parts of the continents of Europe and America. The latent capacities of the value-centered environment of the Islamic religion provide the context for connecting the fate of each Islamic country to other nations. The connection of the destiny of Islamic countries to each other creates relative advantages, opportunities and clear horizons for the growth, development and authority of each Islamic country. The demographic characteristics of the Islamic world are one of the most important factors enabling the achievement of unity. The population of Islamic countries is 725,015,426.1. The average relative density of population in Islamic countries is about 114 people per square kilometer. Due to climatic conditions and geographical position, the concentration of the population is almost homogenous, and most people are concentrated in wet coastal areas and fertile lands.
Bahman Kargar
Volume 17, Issue 65 , May 2008, , Pages 11-19
Abstract
If tourism development policy is well planned and organized, it can be a way for the people of each country to become familiar with the way of life of other nations, as well as beliefs, customs, habits, traditions and summarily cultures and subcultures in other countries. By creating opportunities for ...
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If tourism development policy is well planned and organized, it can be a way for the people of each country to become familiar with the way of life of other nations, as well as beliefs, customs, habits, traditions and summarily cultures and subcultures in other countries. By creating opportunities for cultural exchanges and social interactions, this process provides the ground for expanding the field of view of people and enriching their cultural experiences. In this way, the people of our country will also be able to pass on the positive cultural values of them and of the Islamic revolution to the world; albeit, along with the positive cultural, social, economic and ... effects, tourism industry development can also have countless destructive and negative effects.
Bahman Kaargar
Volume 16, Issue 63 , November 2007, , Pages 11-21
Abstract
Urbanization is considered as one of the main causes of formation of tourism. The evolution and concentration of cities has created certain predicaments and constraints for its inhabitants, and continuation of such a process makes people look for an escape to free themselves for some time from the troubles ...
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Urbanization is considered as one of the main causes of formation of tourism. The evolution and concentration of cities has created certain predicaments and constraints for its inhabitants, and continuation of such a process makes people look for an escape to free themselves for some time from the troubles of urban life, and spend some time on entertainment and recreation and renew their exhausted energy. Residents of cities have been forced to make decisions on spending their free time for various reasons, including physical and spatial uniformity of cities, their heterogeneous and unnatural texture, as well as various types of mental disturbances and stresses and environmental and noise pollution.
After the eighteenth century and the Industrial Revolution, a great transformation in the growth, development and emergence of cities arose and various factors such as the transformation of transportation and the speed of exchanges, the emergence of specialization and division of labor, progress in medical sciences and hygiene, and as a result the increase of the population combined with decrease in mortality, expanding immigration, development and concentration of industry and commerce, as well as rising level of income, diversity of businesses, emergence and expansion of mass communication and ... led to the expansion of urban settlement. Subsequently, huge changes occurred in social, economic, environmental and occupational systems, mental stresses increased, noise contamination, neurological disturbances, unruly behaviors and conditions and … appeared. Following the disclosure of the negative aspects of urban life, leisure planning was at the forefront of urban priorities, which led to the birth of tourism and globe-trotting. Tourism (or globe-trotting) is a phenomenon that has existed with its particular forms in human societies from time immemorial, and has gradually evolved along with historical developments to the present age. This phenomenon is generally based on travel and displacement, which is itself the result of various mental, cultural, social and economic needs of mankind.
Subsequently, huge changes occurred in social, economic, environmental and occupational systems, mental stresses increased, noise contamination, neurological disturbances, unruly behaviors and conditions and … appeared. Following the disclosure of the negative aspects of urban life, leisure planning was at the forefront of urban priorities, which led to the birth of tourism and globe-trotting. Tourism (or globe-trotting) is a phenomenon that has existed with its particular forms in human societies from time immemorial, and has gradually evolved along with historical developments to the present age. This phenomenon is generally based on travel and displacement, which is itself the result of various mental, cultural, social and economic needs of mankind.
Seyyed Yahya Safavi
Volume 14, Issue 53 , May 2005, , Pages 11-13
Abstract
The space that lies beyond the blue sky is completely dark, because light can not travel as fast as usual through diluted air or vacuum. There is total silence in the space, and however the spaceship moves fast, no sound is produced by it in the space. Sound echo, shock waves and speaking have no effect ...
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The space that lies beyond the blue sky is completely dark, because light can not travel as fast as usual through diluted air or vacuum. There is total silence in the space, and however the spaceship moves fast, no sound is produced by it in the space. Sound echo, shock waves and speaking have no effect in space. Geographic factors take different meanings in space. Thus, any space activities require familiarity with necessary concepts for maneuvering in modelling environment.
Tahereh Karimi
Volume 14, Issue 54 , August 2005, , Pages 12-19
Abstract
The Operational System of Linear Scan (OLS) of the Defense Meteorology Satellite Program (DMSP) has a unique ability in discovering visible and near-infrared (VNIR) portion of the electromagnetic spectrum at night. With visible band data of OLS, it is possible to find clouds that are illuminated by the ...
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The Operational System of Linear Scan (OLS) of the Defense Meteorology Satellite Program (DMSP) has a unique ability in discovering visible and near-infrared (VNIR) portion of the electromagnetic spectrum at night. With visible band data of OLS, it is possible to find clouds that are illuminated by the moonlight, as well as light of cities, towns, industrial spots, gas burners and temporary events such as fires and clouds that have become bright by lightning. This paper describes the methods that have been developed to discover and determine the location of VNIR release sources; of course, it is carried out to detect fixed spatial propagation centers by cities, towns and industrial areas using DMSP-OLS overnight data and analysis of multi-time image series.
Seyyed Yahya Safavi
Volume 13, Issue 52 , February 2004, , Pages 12-14
Abstract
Military forces currently limit their activities to near-space, and it is in this very near-space that critical missions such as identification, precautionary missions, target achievement, tracking, telecommunications, navigation, meteorology, medical activities and investigation and research missions ...
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Military forces currently limit their activities to near-space, and it is in this very near-space that critical missions such as identification, precautionary missions, target achievement, tracking, telecommunications, navigation, meteorology, medical activities and investigation and research missions are conducted in an environment completely different from land, sea or air. Different geographic factors assume different meanings in space. Therefore, any space activity requires familiarity with concepts required for maneuvering in the modeling environment.
